he Prince of Evil is back. Once consigned to the theological dustbin, the curious ritual known as exorcism is enjoying a renaissance, not only within theological circles but popular culture as well. A recent piece in the New York Times is only one of many news reports suggesting that exorcism -- the driving out of demons from "possessed" victims -- is back in vogue, even in the Roman Catholic Church which has recently attempted to modernize its hoary views on the subject.

   ¶    The Archdiocese of Chicago has appointed a full-time exorcist, the first in its 160 year history. New York City has four, including the Rev. James LeBar. According to Fordham University sociologist Michael W. Cuneo, the number of exorcists in the American Catholic church has risen to ten from only one a decade ago. His forthcoming book, "American Exorcism: Expelling Demons in the Land of Plenty" refers to an "underground network of exorcists," and a "bewildering variety of exorcisms being performed."

   ¶    Exorcism is a growth industry, thanks in part to the re-release of the 1973 screen hit "The Exorcist." The stage had already been set, though, due to pop-culture fascination with "Satan's Underground," the subject of numerous -- and questionable -- books, documentaries and lectures during the 70s and early 80s by self-styled experts who warned of a proliferation of cabals of powerful devil worshippers . The concurrent fascination with Satan prompted a rash of demon possession claims; from 1989 to 1995, over 300 potential exorcism cases were examined in New York alone, but the Archdiocese says that rituals were performed in only about 10%.

   ¶    Exorcism is no longer the exclusive terrain of the Roman Catholic Church. Protestant Evangelicals, Pentecostals, Charismatics and others have jumped on the exorcism bandwagon, and the ritual is now incorporated into emotionally charged "prayer meetings" and "healing" gatherings. That development, along with unorthodox activities within its own ranks, prompted the Vatican to issue a new document last month under the imprimatur of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith warning of potential "abuses" in faith healings, exorcisms and "anything resembling hysteria."

   The Vatican statement, issued with the approval of Pope John Paul II, warned that exorcism rituals should be performed under close supervision of the local bishop, and should not be incorporated into the celebration of the Mass, healing services or prayer meetings. It affirmed the new guidelines issued last year, cautioning exorcists to not confuse psychiatric illnesses for satanic possession; and the document states that any exorcism rituals should avoid the venue of "sensationalist and hysterical" movements where crowds gather "in expectation of a miracle."

   The case of former African Archbishop Emanuel Milingo underscores the growing fascination in the exorcism ritual in Third World nations, as well as problems faced by ecclesiastical authorities attempting to control access to the controversial ritual. Milingo has caused an uproar within the confines of the Vatican because of his role as what some characterize as "an exorcist witch doctor." His colorful Masses combined with exorcism rituals have reportedly sent thousands of excited spectators into convulsions of group hysteria that would be the envy of any Bible belt preacher.

   "The Lord has asked me to fight the good fight against Satan and his allies," Milingo recently told the British Daily Telegraph newspaper. "Demons exist among us. They are like wild cats who tear chickens to pieces and whom the farmers cannot catch."

   Milingo is accused of combining his prowess as an exorcist stage master with claims of being able to "heal" cancer, AIDS and other terminal illnesses. "Thousands converge on his services to witness people reportedly possessed with demons, writhing in agony on the floor while Milingo conducts his mass exorcism -- dancing, singing and shouting," notes the Telegraph.

   His critics charge that the Archbishop is inventing his own exorcism rituals, though, which are rooted more in African witchcraft than the traditional, sanctioned rites of the Catholic Church. Pope John Paul II was an early supporter, and described the Archbishop as a "lightning rod for the devil." As Milingo continued to incorporate prayer healing spectacles and other theatrics into his exorcism routine, though, he fell from grace with the Vatican and was eventually stripped of his ecclesiastical title. Priests in Zambia accused him of engaging in "black magic," and Milingo eventually found himself the subject of a formal church inquiry and even a round of psychiatric examinations.

   "It was like going back to the Inquisition," declared Milingo. "They were worried that paganism may lay beneath my Christian skin."

   Last year, the Vatican attempted to banish the image of the devil as an impish figure with horns and a pitchfork in favor of a "more subtle and sophisticated" force in the universe that exercises harmful influences through "deception, falsehoods, lies and confusion." Cardinal Jorge Medina announced that the church had concocted a new formula for exorcism which placed more recognition on psychological disturbances and medical problems such as schizophrenia and epilepsy -- conditions which in the past had been misinterpreted as symptoms of demonic possession.

   "One must be very careful," Medina declared at a Vatican press conference, "since ordinary people tend to confuse psychosomatic and psychological problems with demonic ones." The new ritual ordered exorcists to avoid references to "The Prince of Darkness" and instead use more generic terms such as '"the cause of evil." It was a revision of the 21 current exorcism rituals which had been used by the church since their approval by Pope Paul V in 1614.

   Despite the symbolic upgrade, many elements of the old exorcism ritual linger. Exorcists are still required to sprinkle holy water over the victim, and wave the crucifix -- an evocative symbols for Christians of the power of Jesus Christ over the devil. They also looks for clues to demonic possession, like "speaking with a great number of words from unknown languages" and "a vehement aversion toward God, Our Lady, the Cross and holy pictures." The procedure also requires that priests look to mental health professionals as what church officials describe as "the first port of call" before agreeing to perform the exorcism rite. Even then, the approval of the local Bishop is necessary.

   Exorcism is inextricably linked to claims of demonic possession and the force which in modern times has come to be associated with the devil. In diverse theological systems, the devil has been known under a constellation of names and descriptions, including Beelzebub, the Old Serpent, "Legion," Lucifer, Apollyon, the Prince of Darkness and Satan. Folkloric and less flattering descriptions include Old Nick, Old Clootie, Old Teaser and even a comparison to "the holes in a Gruyere cheese," the simple absence of good.

   The Oxford English Dictionary has nearly 13,000 words spread out on several pages describing the devil, beginning with: "In Jewish and Christian theology, the proper appellation of the supreme spirit of evil, the tempter and spiritual enemy of mankind, the foe of God and holiness, otherwise called Satan." As a symbolic figure, Satan evolved from the "adversary" in the ancient Hebrew religion to a more aggressive figure including that of the Archangel Lucifer who commands a celestial legion of sub-demons. Early Christians believed in an immanent apocalypse -- expected to occur within their own lifetime -- where the final confrontation between God and Satan would take place at the battle of Armageddon. Depending on how one interpreted theological scripture, Satan would be vanquished into an eternal lake of fire.

   Throughout history, the devil became a repository of blame for everything from war and famine to barren women and sour milk. Historians have noted that often, communities under stress fell victim to social hysteria in the form of witch hunts, obsessive fear of demons and other ill omens.

   In the eighteenth century as the Enlightenment swept Europe and America, Satan was relegated to the status of a superstition delusion or folk myth. Christianity, and particularly the Roman Catholic Church, continued to believe that the devil was the preeminent force for evil in the universe. While the church persisted with rituals designed to purge victims of demonic possession, though, the devil was gradually considered to be less significant. Mr. Cuneo observes that by the 1960s, "exorcism was all but dead and gone in the United States."

   "It was just a fading ghost long past its prime," he said. "People weren't running to get demons expelled."

   The resurgence of interest in exorcism and all things devilish occurred at the confluence of several trends in American culture.

   By the late 1960s, a "Jesus Freak" movement was coalescing out of the alternative culture and political protest ethos of the time. This period was also the birthing of a "new age" movement emphasizing pop-spirituality, interest in personal therapy regimens, and social transformation. In 1973, Hollywood producer William Friedkin released the movie adaptation of William Peter Blatty's hit novel, "The Exorcist," which in turn fueled a renewed interest in a cinemtatic genre focusing on Satan, demonic possession and apocalyptic themes.

   By the late 1970s, His Infernal Majesty had leapt off the movie screen as was reportedly the object of adoration by a legion of devil worshipping cultists dubbed "Satan's Underground." A series of questionable documentaries on television suggested that Satanic cults and churches had become "America's best kept secret." Talk show hosts like Geraldo Rivera provided a televised, and often non-critical stage for a bevy of self-styled occult crime experts, "former high priests of Satan," and others who laid the responsibility for everything from cattle mutilations to drug dealing at the cloven fee of the Prince of Darkness. Satan had been transformed from adversary to buffoon and historical dropout to a Hollywood star and modern day gang leader.

   Despite its high tech veneer, modern culture remains a fertile breeding ground for all things odd, occult, irrational and satanic. A rash of films such as Arnold Schwartzenegger's "End of Days" and the re-release of "The Exorcist," combined with a surge of Evangelical and Pentecostal religious fervor, all seem to be elements contributing to the revitalization of the devil and exorcism. Indeed, the hard shell preachers and street evangelists who grew out of the "Jesus Freak" movement and once focused on the evils of drug abuse, prostitution, UFOs, the occult and other oddities now have a new cause -- the devil. One example is the Rev. Bob Larson, the frenetic Denver evangelical minister profiled in the recent New York Times piece on exorcism.

   According to Times reporter John W. Fountain ("Exorcists and Exorcisms Proliferate Across U.S.," Nov. 28, 2000) Rev. Bob Larson claims to have 40 "exorcism teams" traveling across the nation in search of evil spirits to drive out, and boasts an even loftier though questionable objective.

   "Our goal is that no one should ever be more than a day's drive from a city where you can find an exorcist," declared the minister. Larson will be holding one of his "Spiritual Freedom" conferences in Chicago next month where he hopes to assemble another "exorcism team" to assist those considered victims of demonic possession.

   Larson is typical of the growing fascination with exorcism that is reverberating throughout America's Pentecostal, Evangelical and Charismatic subculture. His theatrical speaking style, religious right politics and aggressive fund raising techniques have elicited support from followers, and poignant criticism as well. When he isn't on the road giving workshops and conferences, Larson is reaching out with his Talk-Back radio program which is carried on the Trinity Broadcasting Network. His prayer rallies offer a plethora of Bob Larson Ministries products such as video tapes, books and "demon-proofing" tools.

   Rev. Larson practices "spiritual warfare," based on a belief that people -- including Christians -- may be under the control of Satan and his demons. His "deliverance ministry" makes use of prayer healing and public exorcisms where Larson claims to actually "bind" the demonic spirit.

   "Christians can be put into a trance," Larson told a Canadian newspaper. "A demon can look out of them, can speak out of them, and to some extent make them do something that would be contrary to their purposes as a Christian."

   Larson's aggressive tactics have been endorsed by other "spiritual warfare" evangelists like Neil Anderson, Derek Prince, Morris Cerullo and Benny Hinn. One supporter at a Larson prayer rally insisted that the evangelist is "one of a few gifted men of God who is moving and cooperating in the fullness of the gifts, the power and the anointing of the Holy Spirit."

   Others disagree. Some fundamentalist and evangelical Christians are increasingly skeptical, even embarrassed bout the "spiritual warfare" ministries which, like Rev. Larson's are thought to be "cashing in" on the renewed interest in the devil and exorcism.

   "There is a lot of mythology around occult and demonic activity being uncritically accepted by Christians today, which gives too much credit to the devil," says theologian Ellio Miller of the Christian Research Institute. "You end up with a superstitious world view, in where there is literally a devil under every bush."

   David K. Barrett, a professor at Criswell College in Dallas, Texas is also critical of Larson. "His practice is more like Dungeons & Dragons than anything scriptural." Another critic dismissed Larson's prayer meeting theatrics as a "traveling ectoplasm show," a reference to the interest in ghosts and spirit communications popular in the nineteenth century.

   Others accuse Larson of ethical and financial impropriety. Two respected Christian magazines, World and Cornerstone have run extensive investigative reports on Larson and his ministry, focusing in part on his constant appeals for funds to cover financial emergencies. Critics have also noted that while the evangelist claims an annual salary of only $69,000, he received over $1,200,000 for the years 1990-1993.

   "There are a variety of other allegations," noted one newspaper report, "involving doctored radio shows passed off as live broadcasts, callous treatment of troubled callers off the air and questionable real estate transactions."

   Colorado resident Kenneth Smith operates an internet web site critical of the Denver evangelist (http://www.freespeech.org/boblarson/) which links to articles and recent news. Among the charges: Larson's books have been "ghostwritten," and cash flow for his exorcism ministry seems to be "at a minimum." Perhaps the New York Times article will help.

   Belief in a devil, and the concept that human beings might fall under the sway of demonic forces, have deep historical roots. Ancient societies in the Middle East feared that bodily diseases were often the work of evil spirits. Early peoples invented rituals for curing possession. In early Christian times, those under demonic influences -- energumens -- were placed under the supervision of clerical exorcists.

   Hebrew and Muslim theologies also included belief in a devil. One of the most complex elaborations of demonic hierarchies is found in the Islamic faith, which teaches that demons, or jinns, were created before Adam. Like the Biblical tale of Lucifer, the Muslim theology tells of Iblis, the greatest of the fallen angels, who had five sons and gave rise to a lower rank of inferior demons, the ghul.

   The exorcism rituals practiced today in the Christian religion find their roots in the New Testament, and the stories where Jesus claimed authority over demons and expelled them. In 398 c.e. (current era) the fourth Council of Carthage prescribed the rite of ordination for an exorcist and established formulae and procedures for the ritual. These were elaborated in subsequent documents and councils, and formalized again in the 1614 Roman Ritual. Three hundred and eighty-four years later, with the approval of Pope John Paul II, the Vatican released another 84-page guide published entirely in Latin. Despite the pretense of modernization, "De Exorcismus et supplicationibus quibusdam" reaffirmed the belief in demons, "angelic creatures," and the hope that human beings "will be freed from the snares of the Devil."

   An important theme in these new guidelines involved control and authority over the exorcism ritual. With exorcism thriving in many Third World nations, and the ritual finding a wide audience in Pentecostal and Evangelical Protestant circles, the monopoly enjoyed by the Vatican over the devil and his casting-out could be in jeopardy. The staid and reclusive Exorcist of Blatty's novel now has competition from hard-shell preachers, renegade clerics any anyone who has the audacity and imagination to challenge the Prince of Darkness.

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